Marcus Tullius Cicero 106 BC- 43 BC, was a leading Roman citizen, lawyer and senator at the
time of Sulla, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Brutus (a close friend) and Mark Antony. After the
assassination of Caesar, Cicero spoke to the Senate in opposition to Antony who subsequently, in
the struggles for control of Rome as one of the Senate appointed triumvirate with Octavian and
Lepidus, called for Cicero's death. He was captured and executed at the end of 43 BC and
on Antony's orders his head and hands were displayed.
Cicero as the governor of Syracus was the "model of a virtuous manager". He was consistent in what he advocated and what he did and his arguments are worth examining. They cover:
Read these cases and consider the discussion notes that accompany them.
"what is morally wrong can never be advantageous, even when it enables you to make some gain that you believe to be to your advantage. The mere act of believing that some wrongful course of action constitutes an advantage is pernicious."
op cit pp.177
For Cicero, pursuit of the virtues of justice, courage, temperance and prudence (which all call for knowledge of "the truth") is desirable for their own sake
Duty toward society includes
Justice (not coercion, violence, fraud and greed, hypocrisy and exploitative, selfish ambition). This requires
Beneficence: Giving freely and being generous without prejudice.
Cicero thought that giving service to others (rather than money per se) was a virtue although we should not go beyond our means. "Kindnesses" should reflect the needs and merits of the receiver more than being determined by personal relationship. As humanity comes before even family, where things are produced that give advantage to all generally - these should be shared. (What stance do you think Cicero would take over for example - modern medical discoveries and intellectual property rights?)
Courage
Cicero associated true courage with the Stoic virtue of
He considered that those in positions of public trust should be honest and qualified to manage their task.
Temperance
Cicero's precept is never to demean one's nature or bring shame. Temperance involves modesty not excess and control over a hedonistic search for sensual gratification. Cautiousness and timeliness in words and deeds would bring decorum (standing and respect), grace and beauty.
He asserted that what is honest and just is most profitable. There was no real conflict between honesty and profit but trickery and underhandedness are less successful than acting with justice and integrity. Equity in law and customs regulates conduct and fosters social cohesion. If true glory comes from people's affection, respect and trust then if rash mistakes are made then it was important to make amends and regain trust. Cicero argued for personal wisdom and reason over brutishness. Punishment for fraud comes after-the-event. Living as equals in nature, it is wrong to injure another and, even though circumstances may change, we should reject making a dishonest profit based on a lie.
Cicero argued that a responsible governor would not impose heavy burdens but secure individual confidence and property. His respect for property rights and control over the behaviour of public officials (in the redistribution of land to the landless) led to him opposing land redistribution and the waiving of debts. Social confidence that debts would be paid was important.
He offered some examples to resolve some dilemmas and presented case studies (originally from the Stoics; Diogenes and Antipater) to calibrate understanding of honest/dishonest business behaviour.
He accepts that not everyone is honest but argues that dishonesty is wrong and contemptuous worthy of censure/punishment. He explores how a basically honest actor, faced with the chance to gain advantage, processes "what I ought to do" decisions. Should an agreement be kept even if circumstances change? Does the actor remain silent, hold back from taking action or even intervene - when perhaps he/she "should not"?
