Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527
Machiavelli was a political and military theorist, historian, playwright and diplomate. He
reflected on
- the dilemmas of political life and the realities of fast moving, unpredictable situations in so
far as these affect Princes and the state.
- He offered a view as to how and why - what we might regard as hypocrisy, harshness, deceit,
and ruthlessness in governance - occurs naturally. His views thus offer perspectives on ethical
realities and ethics from an angle of power and pragmatism.
- He referenced consequences rather than taking an absolute line on what is right or wrong.
To be called "Machiavellian" is usually equated with political cunning, power seeking,
unscruptiousness and ruthless opportunism but this belies the man and his works which include
The
Prince (written 1513, published 1532, English translation 1602) and
| The Discourses | - on the first decade of Titus Livius (1518, English translation 1636)
- prompted by Machiavelli's membership and debate with the Orti Oricelli - a group of Florentine,
republican dissidents.
|
| Mandragola |
(1518) - a moral satire. A young man seduces the
beautiful and virtuous wife of an ageing lawyer who, to secure an heir,
accepts being cuckolded. The virtuous wife is tricked into a liaison but is then delighted by it.
The play ends happily with everyone satisfied. Machiavelli's,
consequentialist, utilitarian, calculating message is that fraud is acceptable
when it attains positive ends. No one is morally above getting what they want
by taking advantage of each other's desires.
|
| The Art of War | (1521)
|
| History of Florence | (1527, published in 1532) - commissioned by Cardinal Giulio
de'Medici
|
The Setting: Renaissance Italy
Born in Florence,
(1469), the son of a humanist and lawyer, Machiavelli attended the University of Florence and
studied logic, mathematics, music, astronomy and philosophical debate.
Renaissance Italy was the turbulent setting for Machiavelli's political analysis. Artistic
creativity (Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael) and intellectual curiosity was running
fast. There was renewed interest in Greek philosophy. The spirit was "virtu vince
fortuna" - mens' wisdom and efforts bring about change. Petrarch, the 14th century
Florentine poet and humanist put man at the centre of the world.
The Florentine Republic and the d'Medici
Renaissance Italy was also the setting for olitical intrigue and conflict . The city-states of
Florence, Genoa, Venice and Siena and other Duchies were pawns in the rivalry between the
Papacy, France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. The cities hired mercenary armies and sought
protection in alliances to play the powers off against each other.
In early 15th century Florence led by an elected council and chief minster (the Gonfalconier) was
a republic (mainly dominated by an oligarchy of wealthy families). By mid century - the wealthy
Medici family came to dominate.
Catherine d'Medici married Henry II of France and eventually became Regent.
In the year Machiavelli was born, Lorenzo d'Medici came to
power and Florence entered a calm and prosperous period. However Piero, Lorenzo's son, made political
alliances which resulted in to French invasion (1494).
A citizen militia expelled Piero and raised a republic governed by a Council. The first years
however were greatly influenced by the inspired preacher Girolamo Savonarola who urged
citizens to discard irreligious worldliness. He stirred the citizenry against Church excesses and
vanities. This and the efforts needed to defend the security of the republic led to public
demonstrations and the burning works of art, books etc - the "bonfire of the
vanities". A year later Savonarola himself was burnt at the stake as a heretic.
The Civil Servant.
In this context of republican expression, Machiavelli became (1498) a civil servant, secretary to
the foreign and military affairs committee and second diplomatic chancellor to the Republic. He
set off on diplomatic missions meeting powerful figures of the day including Louis XII of
France.
The Borgias
The Borgia Pope (Alexander VI) made his son, Cesare, commander of the Papal armies. Cesare's
campaigns ran close to Florence and Machiavelli was able first hand (and accompanied by
Leonardo da Vinci) to observe Cesare's ruthless methods. However Alexander died in 1502 and
Cesare's fortunes waned. The new Pope Julius II (commissioner of Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel decoration)
withdrew support from Cesare. Machiavelli later concluded, in The Prince, that both Cesare's
methods and Julius's actions were pragmatic and necessary.
The Florentine republic in trying to recover Pisa had employed a mercenary army - but with
these uncommitted forces, the effort failed. Machiavelli became convinced of the necessity of a
loyal, indigenous militia of citizens. Returning to Florence, he was able to implement his ideas
and the new militia regained Pisa. But the city was allied with France and Pope Julius with
Spain. Defeat by Spanish forces resulted in 1506. By 1512, the republic fell as the Medici were
restored. Machiavelli was sacked, seen as a conspirator, imprisoned and tortured for 22 days but
then released after an general amnesty.
The Prince.
Niccolo retired with his family to a farm the north of the city. Here he wrote The Prince (excepts) -
an advisory text for Princes (his conclusions as a diplomat ) - dedicated to Piero d'Medici.
Machiavelli placed great faith in the value of a citizens' republic which accorded with human
nature. He advises a monarch, or small elite, who governs a people possessing no active political
life
- he feels that the monarch would best preserve power by using violence carefully and
economically, by respecting the persons, property, and traditions of his subjects, and by
promoting material prosperity. New territories offer problems. Even though a conqueror's armies
are powerful the goodwill of the pople is still needed.
- People must either be treated well (if their less than grave injuries led them to seek revenge)
or crushed. A prince must take harsh action to ensure that there is no fear of revenge.
- defeated republics were more difficult to control as the citizens remember and love their
political liberty. They continue to smoulder and seek revenge.
- he points to the difficuolties, risks and dangers of trying to initiate changes to a state's
constitution. The ruler has to be more than persuasive. They have force the issue if necessary on
their own without depending on others.
Moral Messages?
Machiavelli draws lessons from the power plays of history and his own observation. He reflects
on how thngs actually are rather than offering a wish list of ideal. He reflects that those who
seek to act virtuously in all things are undone by those how are not virtuous.
Whilst not sanctioning mindless violence and cruelty, betrayal and treachery for their own
sake, he advises Princes to be feared (not hatred) and loved - a difficult combnation but
Machiavelli is pessimistic about ungrateful, fickle, greedy human nature. The advice extends to
- use of controlled, purposeful methods as may contribute to the creation and maintenance of
a strong state, protective of its citizens' security and freedoms. Extreme measures to
restore domestic and foreign stability and viability may be needed.
- a focus on the actual versus the should. Neglect of what actually takes place for a
"should do" virtuous and normative ideal is to tread a path of self-destruction.
- some vices can secure matters and promote state prosperity whilst the inflexibility of pure
virtue may ruin it. State generosity to its people may result in higher taxes and public
resentment so thrift and careful dispensation of welfare (the vice of meanness) were
recommended.
- how good fortune (luck), unforseen circumstances may influence affairs of state. In times of
peace the Prince should encourage state prosperity and build defences against contingencies -
"virtu vince fortuna".
- good laws and and effective state military organisation being fundamental to every state. He
rejected reliance on mercenaries whose allegience was fickle. They followed self-interest over
the interests of their employers.
- fear being a more effective ingredient he feels for a Prince than love. In this sense, the
Machiavellian view of moral conduct relates to consequences and fear of retribution. If swift
action is needed - it takes too long to built up such depth of affection from others as may be
relied upon.
- to the Prince being ready to do wrong with cunning or forceful action - when the situation
demand. Hypocrisy is also a companion - appearing moral in the public eye. A power balance
requires being wary of plots and subversion internally whilst maintaining the loyalty of powerful
groups. In particular Machivelli recommends the Prince to not injure any close servant who may
be able to enact revenge subsequently.
- to selecting ministers carefully - avoiding the excessively ambitious and the sycophants.
Consult and take advice - formulae policy and act decisively following one's own agenda.
Virtu
Niccolo's Latin term "virtus" may variously describe
courage, strength, vigour, valour, worth, merit, the possession of "manly" qualities,
not cowardly or indecisive and, in Machiavellian terms, with a degree of ruthlessness also
possible.
this compares to
moral perfection, conformity of life and conduct with the principles of morality; voluntary
observance of moral laws and standards of right conduct. (Shorter Oxford English Dictionary)
The pragmatism of this compares to notions of the pure and virtuous - always acting honourably.
Without the tougher qualities, for individual princes and citizen republics, failure beckoned.
Machiavelli is a moral relativist who keeps focused on the goal of sound, purposeful government
and the freedoms and benefits afforded to people generally.
Business Applications
What are the lessons for businesses and corporate leaders today? Some management pundits
argue for tough-love and adaptability to the forces of change.
Machiavelli's is a practical, empirical and impressionistic system not an abstract and unified
philosophical one. It offers generalizations from history and experience about the possibilities
and limitations of political action - circumstances in which political acts have justified
consequences (morally?). In political action, more than in private life, many consequences
cannot be foreseen or fully controlled. So action cannot be governed by moral (or religious)
absolutes. The political agent may sometimes be excused for performing harsh, deceptive acts
that others may find reprehensible.
Whilst not supporting the harsh action of Princes, he felt that holding a position in government
enabled one to influence matters for the better. (Better to be inside the tent than out).
In from the Cold and then Out Again
In 1520 the d'Medici Cardinal, Giulio commissioned him to write a History of Florence. In 1526
secured a reappointment as a Florentine government diplomat. Soon after when the Spanish
defeated the French in Itally, the Medici's again lost Florence and a republic was reestablished.
Machiavelli - lost his appointment. Tainted by his d'Medici associations, he died in 1527.
The Civic Italian
Machiavelli placed great value in the superiority of the citizens' republic noting how even
despotic regimes rely on mass, public consent. He does not betray the common good and the
value of civic justice. He maintained a consistent, patriotic vision of a united Italy.
"This barbarian occupation stinks in the nostrils of all of us. Let your illustrious house
(d'Medici) then take up this cause with ... spirit and ... hope... (for)... a truly just enterprise.....
under the banner of your house the country may be ennobled"
The Prince, chapter - Exhortation to free Italy from the barbarians.
He wanted Italian peoples to enjoy happiness and reach their full potential.
The Discourses - 1519
He was asked by the returning Medici family to suggested a new constitution for Florence. This he
offered in the form of his "Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius". His
thesis focused on "republics" - states controlled by a
politically active citizenry and he emphasised that for a republic to
survive, it needed to foster a spirit of patriotism and civic virtue among its citizens. He believed
that a republic was strengthened by open political participation and debate amongst the citizens.
The Art of War
To be completed
Discussion Questions
- When you hear the term "Machiavellian" being used, what
do you think it means?
- From your business experiences, what examples of
"Machiavellian" practices can you offer?
- Machiavelli suggests that when the Prince conquers a
people with different language, customs, laws, etc., it is wise for the
Prince to go to live there or to colonise the new territory. How could this
apply to business?
- What advice does Machiavelli give that can be applied to a new manager - when selecting
staff, when making difficult decisions?
- Offer 4-5 quotations from the Prince that represent sound advice to a CEO of a large
corporation. Explain why each quotation - offers useful insight.
- Identify propositions from Machiavelli's discourses which are relevant to an ethical approach
which takes civic republican values as important ingredients of managerial behaviour.
References
- Machiavelli N, the Prince and the Discourses (translation by Luigi Ricci, revised by E R P
Vincent), Random House, New York, 1950
- Curry P and Zarate O, Machiavelli for Beginners, Icon, 1995
- De Grazia, Sebastian. Machiavelli in Hell, Picador, 1992
- Skinner Q, Machiavelli, OUP, 1981
- Niccolo Machiavelli
(1469-1527) : Library of Congress Citations
- Corvinia - History of
Philosophy
-
Lucidcafe - Machiavelli
This resource was written by Chris Jarvis as
part of the BOLA Project.